The Song of the Ngijima to the Sultan of Bornu

J.R. Patterson's Kanuri Songs (1926) includes two songs for rulers during what we like to call the Late Sayfawa Period. This last century or so of Sayfawa rule, starting from c.1710 to 1808, or 1710 to 1846 if we include the last few decades of symbolic rule under al-Kanemi and his son, Umar, witnessed the gradual decline of Borno. Former vassal states fought for independence, like Mandara in 1781, or the Tuareg seizing effective control of Bilma and the Kawar salt trade to Hausaland by 1759. The Bade likewise became more autonomous in this period, and Tahir ibn Ibrahim al-Fallati criticized the ruling government (and possibly the Kanuri praise songs). Moreover, for several years, a Great Drought (1738-1753) led to widespread population movements as nomadic groups moved south and the Tubu increasingly came to control trans-Saharan trade. Thus, many developments in this pivotal century saw the decline of the Sayfawa rulers.

To read the ngijima's praise song to a mai during this period is therefore fascinating. If scholars like Dewiere are correct, the source of much of the power and influence of the Sayfawa rulers at this point often derived from their spiritual status as wali, pilgrims who made the hajj, and their support for Islamic scholarship. This is somewhat contradicted by the traditional conventions of the Kanuri praise song for mai Momada Ajimi (presumably Muhammad b. al-Hajj Hamdun, who reigned 1729-1744 in the chronology proposed by Lange). From the Diwan, one learns that part of this ruler's reign was impacted by famine, presumably tied to the years of drought that led to more southward migration of nomadic groups. While his father was remembered for the study of the Koran, the son's legacy was rather muted. 

What does the praise song suggest about this mai? The usual values of military leadership, wealth, and his ability to take captives and forcibly relocate them are mentioned here. Unsurprisingly, his descent (from both sides) is also significant in the song. The reference to his lordship over those who wear turbans and those who only wear loin-cloths is also significant, as it places all social classes underneath the king. Unfortunately, it is unclear who Derman is, but this maternal ancestor was clearly someone of status. Indeed, the references to his shettima uncles support this notion. Sadly, we cannot say for certain what the position of a shettima was, exactly, but Muhammad Nur Alkali noted that it was a title often bestowed by the Sayfawa rulers on mallamawa. If so, then this ruler's mother was from a respected Islamic family, possibly descendants of a respected mallam given land by a previous mai. This is not too surprising, since the father of this king was remembered for the recitation of the Koran and Islamic study. Who exactly was Derman (likely Darman) is another difficulty to untangle, but possibly identifiable with the Kubri (Kuburi). H.R. Palmer, in his Sudanese Memoirs mentioned leaders of the Kubri (Kuburi) Kanembu group who were said to be descendants of a man named Darman Aisami who performed the pilgrimage to Mecca. If this is the mai's maternal ancestry, his mother, Hauwa, must have been a descendant of a Kubri leader appointed shitima by one of the earlier Sayfawa rulers. 

Last, but certainly not least, the praise song asserts the ruler's power over the Kurata Shuwa of Kanem. According to Zelter, the Kurata may actually be of Tunjur origin, suggesting origins in Waday. At some point, they adopted the ways of Arabs in Wadai and started to migrate west, apparently reaching Kanem by the middle of the 1700s. If their migration was in part related to the Great Drought that struck parts of the Sahel is unclear, but the reference to them as "slaves" of the mai might suggest a past or recent conflict with the Sayfawa. Since control over nomadic or semi-nomadic populations was often difficult to say the least, and often relied on ethnic leaders responsible for sending tribute, one may assume that a Kurata sheikh failed to uphold his responsibilities or the entire tribe refused to pay tribute. Whether or not they were literally enslaved is difficult to say, but Ahmad Baba of Timbuktu did record Idris b. Ali (Idris Alooma) selling Arab slaves in the 16th century. One must also remember that the coming of the Tunjur to Kanem appears to have upset the balance of power in the region during the 17th century, eventually leading to the establishment of the alifa at Mao under the Sayfawa rulers. Perhaps the Kurata were one of the more intractable Tunjur elements in Kanem in the 18th century, still resisting authority after the Sayfawa sponsored the Dala Afuno at Mao to oversee Kanem instead of the Bulala and Tunjur? Other Shuwa Arabs were accepted or at least intermarried with the elite, as was the case of the mother of the yerima named Malumi

Carefully weave (the sets of kingship)

Hear all and weave

Weave as your grandfather did

Weave as your first ancestor did

You are a match for even the wily men of the town of Debera of the Fig Trees

Dabaga of the large “Damsa” tree, the town of Dall is yours

In Debera a Kauwa Melemi, your ancestor (is buried)

In Tumbur a Kauwa Melemi, your ancestor (is buried)

In Gazajemi, Mai Biri Melemi, your ancestor (is buried)

(And one) in Biddum of the Rocks, seven worlds above it and seven rivers below

May God preserve you in the same way as he does not allow friendship to grow old

O! King, your bounty is to us as the milk of a cow which never goes dry to the calf by its side

From you we find our food in the evening, and water to drink in the morning

May God grant that we may see you every day and rejoice

May God grant the fulfilment of every one of your kingly plans

Always you are the son of Aji,

Aji Duniani, you are the greatest chief on earth

In your kingdom, men live in peace

And of the chiefs in their tents you are the greatest

Of those who wear turbans and those who wear only loin-cloths, you are the chief

You are the ruler alike of men who have a leather loin-cloth tied between their legs and of those who ride on the horses

Of the prosperous land of Yamte in which is the Crested-Rock, you are the king

Father, Sultan of Bornu

The Kurata Arabs in the Kanem towns, of you are the slaves

You are the strength of Bornu

The scourge of every pagan town, you will remain

O! King! You are a man in the prime of his health, and your beasts of burden are all in good condition

O! King! Yours is all the power, you have no equal

The plans for every day are in your hands, the owner of Gagara Wunji

Wunji, from which you sallied to take your captives and cause their relations to follow you with piteous entreaties

O! King, you are the bush fire which burns up the towns of the pagans

You son of Aji, can collect or disperse people at your will

And turn again, and make a town (with those you have dispersed)

You are the scourge of Jillam, Dalla Darge and Dakkinam Dalla Damaram

Some towns are founded during the cold season of the year

But some of yours have been founded as the result of your victories, Aji Gana the Intriguer

O! King, your reign is the equal of any

You son of Aji, have accomplished this

Some days of your reign are as the reign of Ume

You have made them so, son of Aji

O! King the other days of your reign deserve a place in the chronicle of Kings

You have made them as they are, son of Aji

O! King, you are the son of Hauwa, daughter of Derman

Your forehead is that of your mother’s, Hauwa of the large forehead

May God preserve you, and you will equal any of the achievements (of other Sultans)

The King is lord of the people who ride on horses and of those who go on foot, and you are the King

He is a fool who says to a King that he has become wealthy

You are the Sultan, who when he camps in the middle of the forest,

Causes a white town of tents to spring up, son of Aji

You camp will turn the woods brown with horses, son of Aji

You the Sultan, son of Aji, whose camp-fires turn the waste places bright red

Yours the town of Yambe and Bitur

Of all men you are the father

(When you go to war) your slaves surround you as with a thorn fence

And you can put chains round the necks of the slaves from other men’s towns, and bring them to your own town

Let your heart be fearless as that of a bush-cow, you, son of a man brave as bush-cow

Start up now with the fearlessness of a bush-cow and we will at once become joyful

Your uncles are all Shettimas, Sultan, son of a Shettima’s daughter

Your aunt Zainafa, Sultan, son of a Shettima’s daughter

Nephew of Alima, Sultan, son of a Shettima’s daughter

A descendant of Derman who could accomplish all he set before him

You too can utterly destroy the pagans’ towns

There is no one to gainsay you over any of your projects

If intrigue were your object, no one could withstand it

If the place of your intrigue were known no one dare point it out

The cities of Yam and Yaman are yours, descendant of Derman the Powerful

And you can at will destroy the pagans’ towns

There is no one to oppose himself to you

Fusam Burud is my father’s sister

Aman Leman my mother’s brother

I am your humble servant. 

The Song Sung to Kaigama Anterashi, Son of Lima

As for "The Song Sun to Kaigama Anterashi, Son of Lima," it too is attributed to the time period of Ali b. Umar in the 17th century. This is difficult to confirm, although J.R. Patterson's introduction confirms it (and his translation pasted below of the song). However, when checking other sources from the reign of this significant mai of Borno, the only kaigama we found was named Ya'gha. Of course, this is from a mahram Palmer dated to 1647, so there may have been another kaigama before or after this date. Still, it is clear that the title was occupied people slaves by this time. However, as a "chief slave" of the mai and supreme military commander of Borno, these were very powerful men. 

Most of the song reiterates this strength, power, and military leadership of the kaigama in various ways. First, he is associated with the morning star, spears, the personality of a Sultan, and greater than all prosperous men. While the song reminds us that he serves the Sultan, he enjoys a number of privileges due to his importance position in Borno as the highest military authority. Unsurprisingly, Ali Eisami confirmed this since the regiment of the kaigama consisted of at least 1000 horsemen. Nachtigal likewise emphasized the slave origins of the titleholders (although not always the case in the annals of Kanem and Borno). His ability to feed troops, owning land or having tribute rights on dispersed lands, the influence in the south (Mandara and the Kotoko areas) and his even gifting slaves to praise singers suggest someone of immense wealth and power. This may explain the enigmatic allusion to witchcraft, since the power of the kaigama may have been aided by the use of charms and occult knowledge. Anterashi was also influential in Borno's southern frontier, with the mention of the Shari River and a few other place names pointing in that direction.

What is striking about this song, supposedly for someone who lived in the 17th century, is the praise song's vociferous praise of power officials with military and administrative powers that made more powerful than most free people. To be a slave with much power and owned by the most powerful person meant that, despite his enslavement, he was still one of the most powerful figures in Borno. One can imagine titled officials with family ties to the Sayfawa or origins in the royal dynasty might have resented this, which appears to be captured in a praise song to a yerima of noble lineage. 

Kaigama Anterashi

He is the Star of the morning

Chief slave, the rallying point of the spearmen

The hub of war

His town Chirami, his personality that of a Sultan

Morning and evening he is in the midst of the noise (of war)

A chieftain, the glowing embers of the Sultan’s Council

(His friendship) a death-trap; his friend short-lived

If a hawk snatches up a chicken

Following its tracks devolves on the Kaigama

Holder of the principal of the (Sultan’s) offices

Less than the Sultan, certainly, but greater than all the prosperous men

If the chief slave wages war, he does not do so in vain

If he does not engage in war, his idleness is not useless

Chief slave, if I say to you “Slave”

I mean the slave of the Sultan

Chief slave, if I say to you “Bush-cow”

You are a (Man with the heart of) a bush-cow among men

Chief slave, (if I say) your town is Ngumfane,

I mean that you are the forehead of all the slaves

Chief slave, patience is your attribute

Your patience like that of a dromedary

Chief slave, in your hand is a large-headed spear

Chief slave, you practice witchcraft

But its source is in the palm of your hand

Chief slave, my mastery, war is your hobby

Your play, play with a shining spear

You owner of the town of Zarara

Your attributes those of a Sultan

You and a Sultan do not eat from one calabash

Neither do you eat what a Sultan leaves

Sun (of greatness), seat (of power)

Embers of the Sultan’s assembly

If the Sultan counts as ten large kola-nuts

The Kaigama counts as twenty halves

If he and the Sultan are sitting together and their horses are fighting

He will not catch the Sultan’s horse

Nor will the Sultan catch his

Some other mann will catch them

These are the (privileges of) a chief slave

You are the father of all the minor chiefs

And the older brother of all the great chiefs

Chief slave, owner of the town of Ala and of Alari

Who lives between the Rivers Shari and Sharwa

Chief slave, Commander of Bornu’s army

Should the Sultan come out of an old woman’s dilapidated hut even,

After him will come the holder of the office of Kaigama

Should (the link in) the office of Kaigama break,

the Fuguma will join it up anew

Fuguma of the games that never cease

His play not like that of the women, nor of boys

They are games played with a polished spear

You (Fuguma) have lit the fires of war, and are feeling their heat

Other men look on at you from behind a screen

You (Kaigama) Chief slave, owner of the town of Fefelo and of Kafe Fello

Provide a thousand calabashes of food for your followers

The Ngijima, Babuma and Zakkama

All three have sung their song

For the success of the holder of the office of Kaigama

For the success of Anterashi, son of Lima

And he has given them seventy slaves.

The Song to Yerima Mohammadu

With a song composed in honor of a yerima named Mohammadu, J.R. Patterson suggested it dated to the reign of Ali b. Umar. A major mai of 17th century Borno reigning from c.1639-1677, various sources attest to conflict with the Tuareg of Air at this time. For instance, the enslaved French doctor in Tripoli, who wrote extensively about Borno, mentioned conflict between the powerful kingdom and Air. Additional sources, including works translated as the Chronicles of Agadez by Yves Urvoy allude to this conflict. Written sources from Borno, including an Account of Gazargamo dated to 1658 by Palmer in his Bornu Sahara and Sudan, similarly mention one of the conflicts with the Tuareg of Air. Sadly, none of these sources agree on the name of the Air sultan and of the names suggested (Ali, in this praise song, Ada Hamma in the Account of Gazargamo), none are supported by Air internal sources. 

In fact, the Account attributes the conversion of the Air ruler to Islam to his capture by the forces of Borno, something contradicted by a plethora of sources referencing the Islamic "Istambulawa" dynasty ruling at Agades since the earliest time. For the time period during Ali b. Umar of Borno's reign, Air was ruled by the following sultans, according to Djibo Hamani: Muhammad al-Tafrij, succeeded by his brother, Muhammad al-Mubarek. Thus, we believe it likely that some of the names attributed to Air "sultans" in the Borno sources may refer to Tuareg leaders of clans who autonomously raided Borno's northwestern frontier in the 1600s (and continued to do so into the 1700s and 1800s). This seems plausible given the paltry number of horsemen who endeavored to raid the cattle of Fulan in the land of Digima, under the care of the yerima, Mohammadu. It was essentially a small raiding party, but the praise singer turns it into an epic instance of the military prowess of Mohammadu who fought the raiding Tuareg with only 7 horsemen. In other words, he heroically fulfilled his duties in protecting Borno's border. 

Ultimately, we suspect this Mohammadu probably was a yerima sometime during the second half of the reign of Ali b. Umar, and was his grandson through a daughter of his. Using evidence from a mahram dated by Palmer to 1647 in Bornu Sahara and Sudan, which named the yerima as Kaday, we suspect this Mohammadu must have served in perhaps the 1660s or 1670s. The praise song states, "But good fortune belongs to the man twenty years old." This suggests the recipient of the praise song was a young man and, if he was not yerima until after 1647, we suspect this was a youthful yerima who may have been in office after the more alarming actions of the Tuareg in the 1660s (one of which led to the capture and enslavement of a nephew of Ali b. Umar in the Mediterranean after the Air Tuareg were invited by princes fighting for the throne of Borno to help their cause against the mai). It seems unfathomable that the Sayfawa mai would have appointed a young man in his 20s as the yerima during such troubled times. 

Either way, he would have been well-connected in Gazargamo, as his mother was the daughter of Ali b. Umar. According to Maikorema Zakari, the yerima usually lived in Gazargamo himself, while Nachtigal emphasized he was (always?) the son of a princess. Furthermore, Ali Eisami, whose testimony for pre-jihad Borno requires attention, described the yerima as capable of fielding 1000 cavalry forces. Based in the capital, a grandson of the mai and perhaps among the more loyal relatives of Ali b. Umar than his the sultan's brothers, Mohammadu may have been a large supporter to the state in the waning days of Ali b. Umar's reign.

Here is the "Song to Yerima Mohammadu" translated by Patterson in Kanuri Songs:

Son of Doguma Lafiya

Who was like a mudu of kanya fruit which was better than a sa of dates

Lafiya, precious as choicest food, (you Yerima) are the son of Sultan Ali’s daughter

Your land Air is fruitful, full of jujube trees, has rivers full of fish in which to bathe

Guzun is your town in which “darra” is played, it is mosquito-ridden

Yerima is our chief

The holder of the office of Yerima

(compared with) a he-goat is bright red,

(Compared with) a she-goat is light brown as men of the Kingena tribe

Three (sections of the) N’gal tribe and thirty (sections of the) Ngalaga are yours

The Yerima is like a prancing horse whose legs are not hobbled

Like a camel which wanders where it will without a halter.

He is but the grandson of a Sultan, but he is greater than a prince,

Yerima Mohammadu, son of Doguma:

Let me sing his praises and do you give heed.

My song (will fit him) as a gown made with a neck-band,

As trousers made with a slot for a string round the waist.

If you doubt it, ask the Ngijima, Babuma and Zakkama 

who are the three people whose news is trustworthy.

White hairs are dignified,

But good fortune belongs to the man twenty years old.

The fair women of the capital are Asma, daughter of Rugaya,

Kagudi, daughter of Jamall,

Zahra, daughter of Ali the leather worker:

(The women said) ‘Kelima, playful fellow, we do not see the truth of what you say’

He said, ‘Is what I said a piece of reading?’

Playfulness it is that makes the world forgetful of trouble

To rouse the men we said it

There is a prince of Kanem, a son of Fanna

And a prince son of Mune, and whose town is Chungul

And one whose land is Gajiga, who is a son of Gombo

And the prince who is greater than all others

And the prince whose town is Titiswa, and whose father was Gwali

And the fair-skinned prince whose land is Ngamma

And the prince whose land is Danna

You are grandson of a Sultan but greater than a son of a Sultan

Prince Yerima son of Doguma

Kelima Mele son of Hawa (says to you),

Prince Yerima, did you hear what took place last night?

The Angel of Death with his followers,

Seventy horsemen all men of Sultan Ali whose country is Air

Came to take away the cattle of the Fellata of the land of Digima who are your special care

“What is your plan my six horsemen?” (the Yerima said)

There is Kagel, Mele’s son

Mohammadu son of Askura

Adam whose “furra” (?) consists of weapons

Bukr who never fights a fight in vain

Mohammadu whose pleasure is to hear of deaths in battle

With Mohammadu son of Forto there are six, I myself make seven

We shall conquer them

(The Yerima’s) singer is the Kelima

A prince with a Sultan in his pocket

You are a greater man than Iyrima Daudu or Maidalla Hawami

Or than Gadamanga

We have received what we sought

May God preserve you. 

Songs for the Sayfawa

J.R. Patterson's Kanuri Songs are a fascinating collection of praise songs from precolonial Borno. Collected by Patterson in the 1920s from descendants of the professional praise singers who once occupied an important position in the Sayfawa court, all the songs commemorate rulers, leaders, or relatives associated with the Sayfawa dynasty. Intriguingly, several (about 4) are in honor of people associated with Ali b. Umar's reign in the 17th century. Perhaps this attests to memories of his reign as one of prosperity and a Golden Age for the state. One, the earliest, which was certainly reworked over the generations and likely contains anachronisms, is a praise song for the first Muslim mai, Humme. Even more interesting is the fact that two of the songs are for women, including a magira and a gumsu, both of whom appear to have not only occupied prominent positions in the state but held extensive fiefs. Indeed, a more thorough familiarity with the Kanuri language and toponyms in Borno and surrounding areas might be necessary to locate some of the places where these powerful women once held land. 

Naturally, a deep familiarity with the conventions of praise songs among the Kanuri, as well as other oral and written literary traditions is necessary. Patterson was praised by Palmer for his deep familiarity with the Kanuri language, but one wonders if future scholars noticed errors in translation and interpretation. Of course, by the very nature of their genre and function, the praise songs must be interpreted very carefully for any historical content. The genealogies are useful and likely one of the sources for the various girgams and the Diwan, but they undoubtedly focus on military triumphs, celebrate the ruler (or elites) and likely obfuscate defeats, problems, or unjust practices by the Sayfawa dynasty. Moreover, one must also wonder about the larger corpus of praise songs for the Sayfawa. If a song was still in use on the very first Islamic king of Kanem, surely some songs likely survived on other medieval kings of Kanem. For example, Patterson translated a song in honor of Dunama Dibalemi's daughter, yet there is no song for Dunama Dibalemi himself? Similarly, prominent Sayfawa mais like Idris b. Ali, Ali b. Dunama, or Idris b. Katakarmabe almost surely were the subjects of praise songs.

If, however, the once respected positions of the ngijima, babuma and zakkama were no longer an important part of the Shehu court, then it is perhaps understandable why the repertoire might have shrunk by 1926. Perhaps the most glorious Sayfawa kings, whose dynasty was wiped out in 1846 by al-Kanemi's son, would not have been a popular subject matter to the al-Kanemi dynasty's court. For instance, by the time of Barth's travels in Borno, finding detailed records on the previous dynasty was difficult for him. It may have been the case that by the 1920s, when Patterson's translation of these songs was published, Kanuri praise songs might have been lost or hidden. 

So, what types of historical information can be gleamed from these songs? A closer examination awaits us, but they highlight the role of the Sayfawa rulers, the kaigama, yerima, galadima, as military leaders who defend their borders, make conquests, and hail from noble lineages (the genealogical aspect is rather important here). The song for Humme, for example, even includes Bagirmi as an area of operations for the first Muslim king, which may or may not be an example of anachronisms in the song. The praise songs for women are striking for the celebration of women as elites and for their wealth and noble lineage, not just as wives, sisters, or relatives of the kings. That women were once so powerful as landowners and political forces in their own right reveals an aspect of Kanem and Borno under Sayfawa rule that is largely hidden in the Islamic sources.

Even more remarkable is the number of songs dedicated to figures associated with Ali b. Umar (r. 1639-1677). One of his wives is the subject of a praise song, as well as one each for a yerima, kaigama, and to the zerma. In short, 4 out of the 11 songs are said to date to Ali b. Umar's reign. In other words, memories of his reign loomed large, and even though no song specifically for him was recorded by Patterson, his wife and other prominent officials/relations of his were remembered positively. One even alluded to conflict with Air, something verified by other sources and traditions for Ali b. Umar's reign. Whether or not Ali b. Umar's wife truly did endeavor to stop him from going to battle is another question, yet the praise songs for leaders with military responsibilities suggest Ali b. Umar's officials were usually successful in their operations. Again, the very nature of these sources would mitigate against mention of any extreme failures.

Overall, the Kanuri Songs translated by Patterson are fascinating examples of what must have been a much larger repertoire of traditional praise singing going back several centuries. To what extent it would be possible today to find examples of praise songs for other rulers or leaders of Kanem and Borno before the advent of the al-Kanemi dynasty is hard to say, but they certainly provide a different perspective on this fascinating civilization. Those on the Kanem period or the era of Sayfawa consolidation in Borno would be particularly interesting to compare with chronicles and written sources on the same periods.